关键词:风景园林； 中国五岳； 世界遗产； 价值
Key words:Landscape Architecture; Sacred Five Mountains of China; World Heritage; Value
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——杨 锐 赵智聪 邬东璠[YANG Rui, ZHAO Zhi-cong, WU Dong-fan] (2007年 第12期 页码/Page:01)
摘要:“中国五岳”源于中国的封禅和祭祀文化，作为中国山岳崇拜、“五行”学说、“大一统”观念等传统文化和哲学思想的物化代表，其自古而今都被视为一个不可分割的整体，具有重要的世界遗产价值。它为已经消逝的中国皇家文化传统提供了一种独特的见证，并且展示了中国传统文化中儒、道、释的交流与融合。“中国五岳”丰富多彩的宗教建筑、摩崖石刻代表了人类创造性的杰作，其佛塔建筑作为中国砖石建筑最早和最杰出的范例，展示了中国古代高超的艺术和技术水平；元代观星台则是中国古代科技发展的重要范例。在具有世界级文化遗产价值的同时，“中国五岳”还展示了非凡的天然美景，同时也是研究地球早期演化以及生物多样性的最佳记录，具有世界级的自然遗产价值。
Abstract:The Sacred Five Mountains of China (SFMC) originate from the imperial conferment and sacrifice culture. They have long been considered as a whole and with outstanding universal value. The SFMC bear unique witness to the traditions of the disappeared Chinese imperial culture and display the interaction and fusion of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism in the traditional Chinese culture. They are the carrier of traditional Chinese culture and philosophy including mountain worship, the "five elements" theory, the concept of "universal unity" etc. On the five mountains there are religious buildings and cliff inscriptions which represent the human creative genius, stupas which are the earliest and most outstanding specimen of Chinese brick and stone architecture with their artistic and technical traits, observatory of Yuan dynasty which is an important example of the development of ancient science and technology in China. Created by crustal movement during different geological ages, the preserved and crop-out strata of the five mountains are best records of the early evolution of the Earth. The five mountains are of special importance to protection and research of bio-diversity as they represent different climatic zones and habitat of different vegetation types including some endangered rare species. The SFMC are also well-known for their outstanding natural beauty.
内容:2.5 古代科技艺术的范例
“中国五岳”佛塔建筑作为中国砖石建筑最早和最杰出的范例，展示了中国古代杰出的建筑艺术和技术水平；元代观星台等是中国古代科技发展的重要范例。“中国五岳”符合世界遗产第四条标准[4]。
五岳各山数量众多的砖石佛塔，是研究我国古代砖石建筑和雕刻艺术的宝库，其中以中岳嵩山最为突出。嵩山嵩岳寺塔建于北魏正光元年，是我国现存最早的塔；嵩山净藏禅师塔建于唐天宝五年（746年），为我国现存最早的八角砖塔；嵩山塔林(图7)是中国最大的塔林，占地约2.1万m2，存有唐以来历代砖、石和砖石混合结构的各类墓塔230余座，其中唐塔2座、宋塔2座、金塔10座、元塔46座、明塔148座，其余为清塔或时代不详者②，这些墓塔形制多样，造型各异，包括单层单檐塔、单层密檐塔、印度窣堵坡塔和各式喇嘛塔等多种形制，以及正方形、长方形、六角形、八角形、圆形等丰富的式样。
中岳嵩山元代观星台是我国现存最早的天文台，也是世界上著名的天文科学建筑，是我国古代科技发展的重要范例。北岳恒山圆觉寺释迦塔塔顶立有铁制凤鸟，又称“翔凤”，既是避雷针，又可指示风向，初步考证为中国佛塔中仅见的孤例[8]，是研究我国古代气象观察仪的难得实物。
2.6 非凡的天然美景
“中国五岳”具有非凡的天然美景，在美学方面有重要意义，符合世界遗产第七条标准[4]。
“东岳雄、西岳险、南岳秀、北岳奇、中岳奥”，五岳绝佳的自然风光早就被人们所认识，在人们心中，五岳就是中华大好山河的代名词。
(1)东岳泰山被誉为“五岳之首”，它拔地通天，气势磅礴，古松劲柏郁郁葱葱、漫山遍谷，悬崖巨石峥嵘斗角、体态嶙峋，雾潮云海苍茫迷漫、汹涌澎湃；还有雄伟浑厚、历史悠久的文化遗址与其交相辉映。
(2)西岳华山以险著称，有“峭拔峻秀冠天下，奇险天下第一山”之誉(图8)。华山险峻体现在峰多、岭峭、崖悬、洞奇、渊深、石怪，更有“自古华山一条路”把几处著名的险境连接起来。
(3)南岳衡山素有“五岳独秀”的美誉，以群峰突起的峰林状中山景观著称，长年烟锁云横，变幻莫测。其72峰蜿蜒缠绵，欲飞欲旋，优越的亚热带气候和生态环境，使山麓峰巅、岩隙壑涧都披上了翠绿的植被。
(4)北岳恒山雄踞塞北，君临旷野、群峰奔突、气势磅礴，素以“奇”著称。由于强烈的地壳运动，大面积基岩裸露，形成层层断崖，拔地壁立，相对高差千米以上，断崖、奇石、险谷、溪湖、瀑布、温泉、幽洞构成众多罕见的自然景观，主峰海拔2 017m，为五岳之冠，号称“入天北柱”。
(5)中岳嵩山主要由太室、少室两山组成，它东西绵延70km，好像一条沉睡的巨龙横卧在中原大地上，所以自古就有“中岳嵩山如图卧”之说。
五岳的天然美景各不相同，又都具有数量众多的文化遗迹、文物建筑掩映于高山峡谷之中，与之交相辉映。自古以来，五岳吸引、打动了无数文人墨客、风流雅士，留下了具有强烈的民族色彩和丰富民族内涵的山水诗、山水画和园林艺术，成为中国独特山水艺术审美的物质源泉。
2.7 地球演化的最佳记录
“中国五岳”由不同地质年代的地壳运动形成，其分别保存和出露的地层是研究地球早期演化的最佳记录，符合世界遗产第八条标准[4]。
“中国五岳”由不同地质年代的地壳运动形成，分别保存和出露了代表不同时代的地层，有多种地壳运动的原始命名地。南岳衡山由距今1.8亿年前的燕山期花岗岩构成山岳主体①。西岳华山在距今27亿年—23亿年的原古代早期形成其基本骨架，其出露的花岗岩被命名为“华山花岗岩体”；位于华山主峰（五峰区）外围的岩层由于在华山地区出露广泛、典型和研究较早，被命名为“太华群变质岩”；另外，形成于距今约1～2亿年的“华山山前大断裂”，有迹象表明目前仍在强烈活动，华山沿此构造不断间歇性上升，加上外力作用，形成了具有明显特征的华山花岗岩型峰林地貌景观②。北岳恒山地层比较齐全，自老至新依次发育有：太古界、元古界、古生界、中生界和新生界，每个时代的地层都有不同程度的出露。恒山大断层使得恒山北麓与浑源盆地截然分开，断层方向NE45°，倾角70°，断距500～1 000m，延长达30km，为西北盘下降之正断层。中岳嵩山清晰地保存着发生在距今25亿年、18.5亿年、5.43亿年的3次前寒武纪造陆和造山运动的记录，形成角度不整合接触界面及典型的构造形态遗迹，分别被称为“嵩阳运动”“中岳运动”和“少林运动”(图9)；嵩山地区连续完整地出露着太古宙、元古宙、古生代、中生代和新生代5个地质历史时期的岩浆岩、变质岩和沉积岩的地层层序，地学界称为“五代同堂”③。
2.8 重要的生物栖息地
“中国五岳”代表了中国不同气候带、不同植被区划的重要栖息地类型，其中生活着的濒危及特有物种，对生物多样性的保护与研究具有重要意义，符合世界遗产第十条标准[4]。
“中国五岳”地处中国不同植被区划④，代表了中国不同区域的典型栖息地类型。五岳自古以来得到良好的保护，保存了相对完好的自然状态，五岳各山都有大量的野生动植物资源，成为生物多样性保护的重要区域。东岳泰山有维管植物共1 136种；南岳衡山有苔藓植物48科101属152种，维管植物163科579属1 122种，昆虫1 835种，鸟类104种，兽类33种，两栖爬行类动物49种①；西岳华山植物达1 200余种，野生动物资源中有脊椎动物204种[9]⑤；北岳恒山有高等植物86科380属807种，鸟类32种，哺乳类23种，还有两栖类的中国林蛙等③；中岳嵩山共有维管束植物168科760属1 707种（包括亚种和变种），野生动物634种[8]。
“中国五岳”因其特殊的地质地貌和丰富的植被资源，保存了大量的古树名木⑥和特有物种。南岳衡山尚存7处分布在不同海拔高度的保存完好的原始次生林，有衡山特有种1种（绒毛皂荚Gleditsia vestita），世界上仅在南岳广济寺发现2株⑦；西岳华山有华山特有植物种4种，准特有种14种。华山有国家I级保护动物3种，国家II级保护动物20种，属于国际濒危动植物物种贸易公约禁止贸易物种一类5种，二类10种③。北岳恒山的恒山豹榆是北岳恒山独有的珍稀树种，尚未发现对该树种有任何记录，恒山也仅在主峰天峰岭及豹榆沟有少量分布[9](图10)。
In the preface of his book The Sacred Five of China written in 1926, William Edgar Geil, the famous American traveler and member of Royal Geographical Society (UK), compares the “sacred five mountains of China” to the Islam Hajj Mecca and the Christian holy land Canterbury and suggests that they are “Mecca” and “Canterbury” to the Chinese. Undoubtedly, the Sacred Five Moutains has a position in the several thousand year history of China comparable to Mecca and Canterbury, but as sacred “mountains”, they also have additional natural heritage values the other two do not have.
1 The Birth and Development of SFMC
The Sacred Five Mountains (SFMC) of China originate from the imperial conferment and sacrifice culture. Imperial conferment, or fengshan, meaning “conferment on the mountain and practice Buddhist sacrificial rituals there (封土于山而禅祭于地也)”, is a religious ritual practiced by ancient kings and emperors to report his accession to the throne in a bid to gain supreme recognition of his ruling power. According to reliable records, Emperor Qinshihuang is the first to practice the fengchan rituals. In 244 BC, he made his conferment on Mt. Taishan (Dongyue, the Eastern Mountain) as the Emperor. Later Emperor Liu Che (156BC-87BC) of the Han Dynasty proposed for the first time the SMFC based on the “five elements” theory and in accordance with the land boundaries of that period. In 61 BC, the regular ritual of imperial conferment was established by Emperor Liu Xun and religious buildings were set up on the five mountains.
2 Universal value of the Sacred Five Mountains of China
2.1 Witness to a Disappeared Culture
Corresponding to World Heritage Criteria iii, the Sacred Five Mountains of China bear unique witness to the traditions of the disappeared Chinese imperial culture.
The Wuyue Sacrifice system, with the Sacred Five Mountains of China as the carrier, is an outstanding example of the imperial sacrifice culture of China, and is an important component of the traditions of the Chinese royal culture. Under the impact of the traditional Chinese culture and philosophical ideas, the feudal authorities developed a mountain safari, worship, sacrifice and fengshan system as is represented by The Wuyue Sacrifice system, of which “fengshan” later evolved gradually into the grandest state ceremony among all feudal imperial rituals in ancient China.
2.2 Carrier of Conventional Thoughts and Concepts
Evolution of the Wuyue Culture is closely related to traditional Chinese culture and philosophy including mountain worship, the “five elements” theory, the concept of “universal unity” etc, which meets the requirement of World Heritage Criteria vi.
Nature Worship, a primitive thinking universal to all cultures, can be traced back to ancient days in China. There is a long history of mountain worship in China, ancient people believing there are immortals living in the mountains. As important mountains in the plain areas, the Sacred Five Mountains have been the carrier of the nature worship since ancient times. In accordance with the “five elements” theory, the Sacred Five Mountains stand for five directions which form a unity; while in accordance with the “universal unity” concept, the Sacred Five Mountains constitute the territorial boundary of the state. In this connection, fengshan becomes an important symbol of state unity.
2.3 Display of Cultural Exchange
The ancient buildings existing in large numbers at the Sacred Five Mountains of China display the interaction and fusion of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism in traditional Chinese culture with their sites, spatial arrangement and interior decoration. The cultural traditions at the Sacred Five Mountains in their capacity as the holy lands of Buddhism and the symbol of the throne have far reaching impact on other Asian countries and the world at large, which is in line with the World Heritage Criteria ii.
Beautiful natural landscapes and the special political status attached to imperial conferment attract Buddhists, Confucianists and Taoists to the Sacred Five Mountains, where they have built palaces, and academies to spread their thoughts. Meanwhile, these values interact, assimilate and merge with each other and have profound influence on the development of ancient Chinese philosophy. At Northern Hengshan, the tallest building is centered on Sanjiao Hall which is enshrined with the statues of Confucius, Laozi and Sakyamuni. As famous holy lands of Buddhism, Mt. Hengshan (Nanyue) and Mt. Songshan (Zhongyue) bear witness to the development and spread of Buddhism in China. Shaolin Temple on Mt. Songshan is the birth place of Chan Buddhism.
The impact of the cultural traditions of the Sacred Five Mountains (as the symbol of the throne) is felt in other southeastern Asian countries. The Wuyue system, spread east to Korea, and the Shilla dynasty created a similar system and established its Sacred Five Mountains there. The fengshan tradition also spread to the Arabian world, leaving a long-lasting impression.
2.4 Masterpiece of Human Genius
Sacred Five Mountains of China include religious buildings and cliff inscriptions which represent the human creative genius, which complies with the World Heritage Criteria i.
On the Sacred Five Mountains, there are large numbers of religious buildings and cliff inscriptions which are outstanding examples of human creative genius in architectural arts and building techniques, in particular those at the Hanging Temple of the Central Mountain, Mt. Hengshan and Songyue Temple of Mt. Songshan.
Cliff inscriptions, such as the inscription of “Heng Zong” on the Northern Mt. Hengshan and of the Vajra Prajna Paramita Sutra at the Sutra Valley of Mt. Taishan, are outstanding displays of the human creative genius in inscriptions.
2.5 Specimen of Ancient Science and Arts
The stupas, as the earliest and most outstanding specimen of Chinese brick and stone architecture, display typical artistic and technical traits of Chinese brick and stone architecture. The observatory of Yuan dynasty is an important example of the development of ancient science and technology in China. This corresponds to World Heritage Criteria iv.
The Pagoda of Songyue Temple of Mt. Songshan is the oldest existing multi-eaved brick pagoda in China, first constructed in the first year of the reign of Emperor Zhengguang of Northern Wei Dynasty（520 A.D.）. The stupa forest of Mt. Songshan occupies a total land area of 21 000m2 and has over 230 stupas built during different dynasties since Tang. It is the largest of its kind and involves stupas of brick, stone, brick and stone structure. There are two stupas built in Tang, two in Song, 10 in Jin, 46 in Yuan, 148 in Ming, the remaining in Qing or unknown dynasties.
The observatory of Yuan dynasty on Mt. Songshan is the oldest existent observatory in China, a structure famous in world astronomy, and an important example of the development of ancient science and technology in China.
2.6 Extraordinary Natural Beauty
The Sacred Five Mountains of China are of extraordinary natural beauty and of great aesthetic value, corresponding to World Heritage Criteria vii.
Each of Sacred Five Mountains has a natural beauty different from the others, and contains large numbers of cultural relics and ancient buildings hiding on the mountains and the valleys. Since ancient times, the Sacred Five Mountains have attracted numerous scholars, writers and celebrities who left a long train of poems, painting and landscaping masterpieces with strong national characteristics and rich cultural connotations. The Sacred Five Mountains has thus become the major resource of aesthetic preference for mountain and river landscapes unique to China.
2.7 Best Record of Evolution of the Earth
Created by crustal orogeny during different geological ages, the preserved and crop-out strata of the five mountains are the best records of the early evolution of the Earth. This corresponds to World Heritage Criteria viii.
Created by crustal orogeny during different geological ages, the Sacred Five Mountains of China have preserved and crop-out strata of different geological ages and places from which many crustal orogenys derive their names. The framework of the Western Mt. Huashan came into being 270 to 230 million years before now. The crop-out granite of Mt. Huashan is named the “Mt. Huashan Granite” because of its location. The Northern Mt. Hengshan has a complete range of strata, including Archean, Proterozoic, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cainozoic eras with crop-outs of varying degrees for each. The Central Mt. Songshan preserves clear signs of the configurations created by the three Pre-Cambrian land-forming and mountain-forming activities. This is known as the “Songyang Orogeny”, “Zhongyue Orogeny” and “Shaolin Orogeny” respectively. In the Mt. Songshan area there are crops out showing the consecutive and complete lava, metamorphic and sediment strata of the five different geological ages of Archean, Proterozoic, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cainozoic eras. This is called the “Five Generations under the Same Roof” in the geo-science field.
2.8 Important Biological Habitat
The Sacred Five Mountains of China represent important biological habitats types in different climatic zones, with different vegetational types. Endangered and endemic biotic species live in these areas, which significant for biodiversity conservation and research, corresponding to the World Heritage Criteria x.
The Sacred Five Mountains of China are situated in different regions of vegetation types, The Sacred Five Mountains of China have been under sound protection for many years, so they are in rather good natural condition now. Each of the Sacred Five Mountains has large number of wild plant and animal resources, and is important regions for conservation of biodiversity.
Thanks to its unique geological landforms and rich vegetation resources, the Sacred Five Mountains of China contain large numbers of ancient trees5 and species unique to each. The Southern Mt. Hengshan has intact secondary forests distributed at different altitudes and one species unique to it (Gleditsia vestita) with the only two living singles in the world kept at the Guangji Temple.
3 Inalienable Natural and Cultural values of the Sacred Five Mountains of China
One of the most pronounced features of world heritage sites in China is that there are many mixed natural and cultural heritage sites. Currently, there are 35 world heritage sites in China, 4.1% of the world total. Of the 25 mixed heritage sites, there are 4 in China, accounting for 16% of the world total or 11.4% of the total number of world heritage sites in China. This feature makes China different from other countries in the world: natural heritage and cultural heritage are of equal value, interdependent and inalienable from each other.
The Sacred Five Mountains of China reflects the close linkage between the natural and cultural heritage values. On the Sacred Five Mountains, there are large numbers of very old ancient buildings inside of which there are many ancient trees. The flora forms an important part of the cultural landscapes: cultural values are closely linked to the bio-diversity values.
The Sacred Five Mountains of China have different configurations: The different landforms created by different geological evolutions with the Sacred Five Mountains were captured by the ancient Chinese who attach different cultural connotation to the Sacred Five while turning them into a unitary cultural concept. The Sacred Five Mountains derive their beauty and grandeur from the nature, which gives life to their cultural values. In traditional Chinese culture, nature is bestowed with cultural significance, adding one more interpretation to the natural heritage values.
From a philosophical point of view, all matters are interrelated. The Sacred Five Mountains of China represent a unique understanding of the relations between different matters of ancient Chinese and a cultural concept based on reflection about the natural phenomena. Inheritance of these cultural concepts makes it possible for the natural landscape to be kept intact. It is nothing rare to find in the Chinese civilization, with a content accumulated over several thousand years that the natural heritage values, in terms of bio-diversity and geological landforms are embodied in the cultural values while natural heritage are better protected and managed with the help of cultural traditions and customs. The significance of the natural heritage sites may penetrate through the sacred mountains and rivers into the minds of the 1.3-billion Chinese population.
4 Conclusion
The Sacred Five Mountains of China has outstanding universal value. Considered as a whole since ancient times, the Sacred Five Mountains of China reflect traditional Chinese culture and bear witness to the development of China over thousands of years. The mountains are of rich natural heritage, a value not to be neglected. As an extension of the mixed heritage of Mt. Taishan, the Sacred Five Mountains of China shall be inscribed on the world heritage list as an inalienable whole and taken as the common asset of the whole world.
作者简介:杨 锐/男/博士/教授/清华大学建筑学院景观学系常务副主任，资源保护与风景旅游研究所所长，本刊副主编(北京 100084)
赵智聪/女/清华大学建筑学院景观学系在读博士研究生(北京 100084)
邬东璠/女/博士/助理研究员/清华大学建筑学院景观学系在站博士后(北京 100084)
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